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area loss

  • 1 area loss

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > area loss

  • 2 area loss

    потери в стыке оптокабелей из-за неидентичности поперечных сечений их сердцевин

    English-Russian dictionary of telecommunications and their abbreviations > area loss

  • 3 loss

    2) затухание; ослабление
    - additional loss
    - angular misalignment loss
    - antenna-dissipative loss
    - area loss
    - attenuation loss
    - auxiliary loss
    - azimuthal loss
    - branching loss
    - bridging loss
    - cable loss
    - capacity loss
    - cavity loss
    - coax loss
    - commutative loss
    - connector loss
    - contact loss
    - continuous loss
    - coupling loss
    - crosstalk loss
    - decibel loss
    - degradation loss
    - deviation loss
    - dielectric loss
    - extrinsic-joint loss
    - fiber-to-detector loss
    - finite loss
    - form loss
    - free-space loss
    - gap loss
    - harmonic loss
    - insertion loss
    - intrinsic-joint loss
    - junction loss
    - lateral-offset loss
    - light source-to-fiber coupling loss
    - line loss
    - link-power loss
    - load loss
    - long-term loss
    - loss of lock rate
    - loss of phase
    - loss of power
    - loss of resolution
    - loudness loss
    - macrobend loss
    - misalignment loss
    - mismatch loss
    - modal loss
    - net loss
    - no-load loss
    - numerical-aperture loss
    - ohmic loss
    - optical loss
    - overall loss
    - path loss
    - pointing loss
    - power loss
    - processing loss
    - propagation loss
    - radome-transmission loss
    - rain loss
    - real loss
    - recording loss
    - reflection loss
    - refraction loss
    - resistance loss
    - resonator loss
    - return loss
    - scattering loss
    - shadow loss
    - signal loss
    - source transition loss
    - splice loss
    - straddle loss
    - tapering loss
    - time-transit loss
    - transition loss
    - translation loss
    - transmission loss
    - transmission quality loss
    - transverse-offset loss
    - tropospheric loss
    - variable loss
    - via-net loss
    - voltage loss
    - wire loss
    - zero loss

    English-Russian dictionary of telecommunications and their abbreviations > loss

  • 4 loss area

    loss area Verlustfläche f

    English-German dictionary of Electrical Engineering and Electronics > loss area

  • 5 loss

    English-Ukrainian dictionary of microelectronics > loss

  • 6 loss of voltage

    1. потеря напряжения
    2. исчезновение напряжения

     

    исчезновение напряжения
    Снижение напряжения в любой точке системы электроснабжения до нуля.
    [ ГОСТ 23875-88]

    исчезновение напряжения
    Состояние нулевого напряжения в сети, продолжающееся более двух периодов сетевого напряжения. Качественные импульсные блоки питания могут выдержать 20-40 мс (один - два периода) отсутствия сетевого напряжения

    EN

    loss of voltage
    a condition in which the voltage is zero or near zero, at the supply point or points
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    blackout
    cutoff of electrical power, especially as a result of a shortage, a mechanical failure, or overuse by consumers
    NOTE A power cut due to a short or long-term electric power loss in an area.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    FR

    manque de tension
    situation dans laquelle la valeur de la tension en un point de fourniture est nulle ou quasi nulle
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    coupure
    arrêt de l’alimentation électrique, due en particulier à une pénurie, une défaillance mécanique ou une surconsommation de la part des utilisateurs
    NOTE Coupure de courant entraînant la suppression de l’alimentation électrique dans une zone pour une courte durée ou une longue durée.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    451.1 В случаях, если понижение или исчезновение напряжения с последующим его восстановлением может создать опасность для людей или имущества, должны быть приняты необходимые меры предосторожности.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 6-94 ( МЭК 364-4-45-84)]

    465.3.1 Цепи управления электродвигателями должны быть спроектированы таким образом, чтобы не было возможности самозапуска двигателя после его остановки вследствие понижения или исчезновения напряжения, если самозапуск является опасным.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 7-94 ( МЭК 364-4-46-81)]

    Недопустимые, нерекомендуемые

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    потеря напряжения

    [В.А.Семенов. Англо-русский словарь по релейной защите]

    Тематики

    EN

    28. Исчезновение напряжения

    D. Spannungslosigkeit

    E. Loss of voltage

    F. Manque de tension

    Снижение напряжения в любой точке системы электроснабжения до нуля

    Источник: ГОСТ 23875-88: Качество электрической энергии. Термины и определения оригинал документа

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > loss of voltage

  • 7 loss of the supply voltage

    1. исчезновение напряжения

     

    исчезновение напряжения
    Снижение напряжения в любой точке системы электроснабжения до нуля.
    [ ГОСТ 23875-88]

    исчезновение напряжения
    Состояние нулевого напряжения в сети, продолжающееся более двух периодов сетевого напряжения. Качественные импульсные блоки питания могут выдержать 20-40 мс (один - два периода) отсутствия сетевого напряжения

    EN

    loss of voltage
    a condition in which the voltage is zero or near zero, at the supply point or points
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    blackout
    cutoff of electrical power, especially as a result of a shortage, a mechanical failure, or overuse by consumers
    NOTE A power cut due to a short or long-term electric power loss in an area.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    FR

    manque de tension
    situation dans laquelle la valeur de la tension en un point de fourniture est nulle ou quasi nulle
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    coupure
    arrêt de l’alimentation électrique, due en particulier à une pénurie, une défaillance mécanique ou une surconsommation de la part des utilisateurs
    NOTE Coupure de courant entraînant la suppression de l’alimentation électrique dans une zone pour une courte durée ou une longue durée.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    451.1 В случаях, если понижение или исчезновение напряжения с последующим его восстановлением может создать опасность для людей или имущества, должны быть приняты необходимые меры предосторожности.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 6-94 ( МЭК 364-4-45-84)]

    465.3.1 Цепи управления электродвигателями должны быть спроектированы таким образом, чтобы не было возможности самозапуска двигателя после его остановки вследствие понижения или исчезновения напряжения, если самозапуск является опасным.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 7-94 ( МЭК 364-4-46-81)]

    Недопустимые, нерекомендуемые

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Смотри также

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > loss of the supply voltage

  • 8 loss reduction

    The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > loss reduction

  • 9 loss area

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > loss area

  • 10 loss of silicon area

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > loss of silicon area

  • 11 loss silicon area

    програш у використовуванні кремнієвого кристала

    English-Ukrainian dictionary of microelectronics > loss silicon area

  • 12 loss of silicon area

    English-Russian dictionary of microelectronics > loss of silicon area

  • 13 controlled area interface

    English-Russian dictionary on nuclear energy > controlled area interface

  • 14 control

    control n
    управление
    acceleration control line flow restrictor
    дроссельный пакет линии управления приемистостью
    acceleration control unit
    автомат приемистости
    aerodrome approach control system
    система управления подходом к аэродрому
    aerodrome control
    управление в зоне аэродрома
    aerodrome control communication
    аэродромная командная связь
    aerodrome controlled zone
    зона, контролируемая авиадиспетчерской службой аэродрома
    aerodrome control point
    аэродромный диспетчерский пункт
    aerodrome control radar
    диспетчерский аэродромный радиолокатор
    aerodrome control radio
    аэродромная радиостанция командной связи
    aerodrome control sector
    зона контроля аэродрома диспетчерской службой
    aerodrome control service
    служба управления движением в зоне аэродрома
    aerodrome control tower
    аэродромный диспетчерский пункт
    aerodrome control tower clearance
    разрешение аэродромного диспетчерского пункта
    aerodrome control unit
    аэродромный диспетчерский пункт
    aerodrome traffic control zone
    зона аэродромного управления воздушным движением
    aerodynamic control
    управление с помощью аэродинамической поверхности
    aerodynamic roll control
    управление креном с помощью аэродинамической поверхности
    aeronautical information control
    аэронавигационное диспетчерское обслуживание
    aileron control system
    система управления элеронами
    aileron trim tab control system
    система управления триммером элерона
    air control
    диспетчерское обслуживание воздушного пространства
    aircraft control loss
    потеря управляемости воздушного судна
    aircraft control margin
    запас управляемости воздушного судна
    aircraft control system
    система управления воздушным судном
    aircraft control transfer
    передача управления воздушным судном
    aircraft sanitary control
    санитарный контроль воздушных судов
    air intake spike control
    управление конусом воздухозаборником
    air mixture control
    регулирование топливовоздушной смеси
    airport control tower
    командно-диспетчерский пункт аэрофлота
    air traffic control
    1. управление воздушным движением
    2. ответчик системы УВД Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee
    Консультативный комитет по управлению воздушным движением
    air traffic control area
    зона управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control boundary
    граница зоны управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control center
    диспетчерский центр управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control clearance
    разрешение службы управления воздушным движением
    air-traffic control instruction
    указания по управлению воздушным движением
    air traffic control loop
    цикл управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control procedures
    правила управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control radar
    радиолокатор управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control routing
    прокладка маршрута полета согласно указанию службы управления движением
    air traffic control service
    служба управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control system
    система управления воздушным движением
    air traffic control unit
    пункт управления воздушным движением
    airways control
    управление воздушным движением на трассе полета
    airworthiness control system
    система контроля за летной годностью
    altitude control unit
    высотный корректор
    amount of controls
    степень использования
    angle-of-attack control
    установка угла атаки
    angular position control
    управление по угловому отклонению
    antitorque control pedal
    педаль управления рулевым винтом
    approach control
    управление в зоне захода на посадку
    approach control point
    диспетчерский пункт захода на посадку
    approach control radar
    радиолокатор управления заходом на посадку
    approach control service
    диспетчерская служба захода на посадку
    approach control tower
    пункт управления заходом на посадку
    approach control unit
    диспетчерский пункт управления заходом на посадку
    area control
    управление в зоне
    area control center
    районный диспетчерский центр управления движением на авиатрассе
    area flight control
    районный диспетчерский пункт управления полетами
    assisted control
    управление с помощью гидроусилителей
    associated crop control operation
    контроль состояния посевов по пути выполнения основного задания
    associated fire control operation
    противопожарное патрулирование по пути выполнения основного задания
    assume the control
    брать управление на себя
    assumption of control message
    прием экипажем диспетчерского указания
    attitude control system
    система ориентации
    (в полете) attitude flight control
    управление пространственным положением
    automatic boost control
    автоматическое регулирование наддува
    automatic control
    автоматическое управление
    automatic exhaust temperature control
    автоматический регулятор температуры выходящих газов
    automatic flight control
    автоматическое управление полетом
    automatic flight control equipment
    оборудование автоматического управления полетом
    automatic flight control system
    автоматическая бортовая система управления
    automatic gain control
    автоматическая регулировка усиления
    automatic level control
    автоматическое управление уровнем
    automatic path control
    автоматический контроль траектории
    automatic volume control
    автоматическое регулирование громкости
    autopilot control
    управление с помощью автопилота
    autostart control unit
    автомат запуска
    backswept boundary layer controlled wing
    крыло с управляемым пограничным слоем
    balance the control surface
    балансировать поверхность управления
    bank control
    управление креном
    blanketing of controls
    затенение рулей
    bleed valve control mechanism
    механизм управления клапанами перепуска воздуха
    bleed valve control unit
    блок управления клапанами перепуска
    boundary layer control
    управление пограничным слоем
    brake control pedal
    педаль управления тормозами
    Budget Control Section
    Секция контроля за выполнением бюджета
    (ИКАО) bypass control
    управление перепуском топлива
    cabin temperature control system
    система регулирования температуры воздуха в кабине
    cable control
    тросовое управление
    cable control system
    система тросового управления
    cargo hatch control switch
    переключатель управления грузовым люком
    change-over to manual control
    переходить на ручное управление
    check control
    контрольный код
    clearance control
    таможенный досмотр
    collective pitch control
    управление общим шагом
    collective pitch control lever
    ручка шаг-газ
    collective pitch control rod
    тяга управления общим шагом
    collective pitch control system
    система управления общим шагом
    (несущего винта) constant altitude control
    выдерживание постоянной высоты
    control actuator
    исполнительный механизм управления
    control board
    пульт управления
    control booster
    усилитель системы управления
    control cable
    трос управления
    control cable fairlead
    направляющая тросовой проводки
    control cable pressure seal
    гермовывод троса управления
    control center
    диспетчерский центр
    control characteristic
    характеристика управляемости
    control circuit
    цепь управления
    control column
    штурвальная колонка
    control column elbow
    колено колонки штурвала
    control column gaiter
    чехол штурвальной колонки
    control communication
    связь для управления полетами
    control console
    пульт управления
    control desk
    пульт управления
    control force
    усилие в системе управления
    control gear
    ведущая шестерня
    control in transition
    управление на переходном режиме
    control lag
    запаздывание системы управления
    controlled aerodrome
    аэродром с командно-диспетчерской службой
    controlled airspace
    контролируемое воздушное пространство
    controlled flight
    контролируемый полет
    controlled route
    контролируемый маршрут
    controlled spin
    управляемый штопор
    control lever
    ручка управления
    controlling beam
    управляющий луч
    controlling fuel
    командное топливо
    control linkage
    проводка системы управления
    control lock
    стопор рулей
    control loss
    потеря управляемости
    control message
    диспетчерское указание
    control mode
    режим управления
    control of an investigation
    контроль за ходом расследования
    control panel
    пульт управления
    control pedestal
    пульт управления
    control position indicator
    указатель положения рулей
    control radar
    радиолокационная станция наведения
    control radio station
    радиостанция диспетчерской связи
    control rod
    тяга управления
    control rod pressure seal
    гермовывод тяги управления
    control signal
    управляющий сигнал
    control slot
    щель управления
    (пограничным слоем) control speed
    эволютивная скорость
    Минимально допустимая скорость при сохранении управляемости. controls response
    чувствительность органов управления
    control stick
    ручка управления
    (воздушным судном) control stick movement
    перемещение ручки управления
    control surface
    поверхность управления
    control surface angle
    угол отклонения руля
    control surface chord
    хорда руля
    control surface deflection
    отклонение поверхности управления
    control surface effectiveness
    эффективность рулей
    control surface load
    нагрузка на поверхность управления
    control surface pilot
    ось руля
    control surface reversal
    перекладка поверхности управления
    control system
    система управления
    control system load
    усилие на систему управления
    control the aircraft
    управлять воздушным судном
    control the pitch
    управлять шагом
    control transfer line
    рубеж передачи управления
    control unit
    командный прибор
    control valve
    клапан управления
    control wheel
    штурвал
    control wheel force
    усилие на штурвале
    control wheel grip
    рукоятка штурвала
    control wheel horn
    рог штурвала
    control wheel rim
    колесо штурвала управления
    control zone
    зона диспетчерского контроля
    crop control flight
    полет для контроля состояния посевов
    crop control operation
    полет для контроля состояния посевов с воздуха
    customs control
    таможенный досмотр
    cyclic pitch control
    управление циклическим шагом
    cyclic pitch control rod
    тяга управления циклическим шагом
    cyclic pitch control stick
    ручка продольно-поперечного управления циклическим шагом
    (несущего винта) cyclic pitch control system
    система управления циклическим шагом
    (несущего винта) data flow control
    управление потоком информации
    deceleration control unit
    дроссельный механизм
    deflect the control surface
    отклонять поверхность управления
    (напр. элерон) differential aileron control
    дифференциальное управление элеронами
    differential control
    дифференциальное управление
    digital engine control
    цифровой электронный регулятор режимов работы двигателя
    direct control
    непосредственный контроль
    directional control
    путевое управление
    directional control capability
    продольная управляемость при посадке
    directional control loss
    потеря путевой управляемости
    directional control pedal
    педаль путевого управления
    direct lift control system
    система управления подъемной силой
    director control
    директорное управление
    distance control
    дистанционное управление
    Document Control Unit
    Сектор контроля за документацией
    drift angle control
    управление углом сноса
    dual control
    спаренное управление
    easy-to-operate control
    легкое управление
    electric propeller pitch control
    электрическое управление шагом воздушного винта
    electronic engine control system
    электронная система управления двигателем
    elevator control
    управление рулем высоты
    elevator control stand
    колонка руля высоты
    emergency control
    аварийное управление
    engine control system
    система управления двигателем
    engine throttle control lever
    рычаг раздельного управления газом двигателя
    environmental control system equipment
    оборудование системы контроля окружающей среды
    environment control
    охрана окружающей среды
    environment control system
    система жизнеобеспечения
    (воздушного судна) environment control system noise
    шум от системы кондиционирования
    fail to maintain control
    не обеспечивать диспетчерское обслуживание
    fail to relinquish control
    своевременно не передать управление
    feedback control system
    система управления с обратной связью
    fire control operation
    противопожарное патрулирование с воздуха
    flight compartment controls
    органы управления в кабине экипажа
    flight control
    диспетчерское управление полетами
    flight control boost system
    бустерная система управления полетом
    flight control fundamentals
    руководство по управлению полетами
    flight control gust-lock system
    система стопорения поверхностей управления
    (при стоянке воздушного судна) flight control load
    нагрузка в полете от поверхности управления
    flight control system
    система управления полетом
    flight director system control panel
    пульт управления системой директорного управления
    flow control
    управление потоком
    flow control center
    диспетчерский центр управления потоком воздушного движения
    flow control procedure
    управление потоком
    foot controls
    ножное управление
    fore-aft control rod
    тяга провольного управления
    fuel control panel
    топливный щиток
    fuel control unit
    командно-топливный агрегат
    fuel injection control
    регулирование непосредственного впрыска топлива
    full-span control surface
    поверхность управления по всему размаху
    (напр. крыла) get out of control
    терять управление
    go out of control
    становиться неуправляемым
    ground control
    управление наземным движением
    ground controlled approach
    заход на посадку на посадку под контролем наземных средств
    ground control system
    наземная система управления
    (полетом) hand control
    ручное управление
    handle the flight controls
    оперировать органами управления полетом
    heading control loop
    рамочная антенна контроля курса
    health control
    медицинский контроль
    helicopter control system
    система управления вертолетом
    hydraulic control
    гидравлическое управление
    hydraulic control boost system
    гидравлическая бустерная система управления
    hydraulic propeller pitch control
    гидравлическое управление шагом воздушного винта
    immigration control
    иммиграционный контроль
    independent control
    автономное управление
    inertial control system
    инерциальная система управления
    integrated control system
    встроенная система контроля
    integrated system of airspace control
    комплексная система контроля воздушного пространства
    interphone control box
    абонентский аппарат переговорного устройства
    irreversible control
    необратимое управление
    jacking control unit
    пульт управления подъемниками
    jet deviation control system
    система управления отклонением реактивной струи
    laminar flow control
    управление ламинарным потоком
    landing control
    управление посадкой
    land use control
    контроль за использованием территории
    lateral control
    поперечное управление
    lateral control rod
    тяга поперечного управления
    lateral control spoiler
    интерцептор - элерон
    lateral control system
    система поперечного управления
    (воздушным судном) layout of controls
    расположение органов управления
    level control
    управление эшелонированием
    longitudinal control
    продольное управление
    longitudinal control rod
    тяга продольного управления
    longitudinal control system
    система продольного управления
    (воздушным судном) loss of control
    потеря управления
    loss the control
    терять управление
    low control area
    нижний диспетчерский район
    maintain control
    обеспечивать диспетчерское обслуживание
    manipulate the flight controls
    оперировать органами управления полетом
    manual control
    ручное управление
    master control
    центральный пульт управления
    mid air collision control
    предупреждение столкновений в воздухе
    mixture control
    высотный корректор
    mixture control assembly
    высотный корректор двигателя
    mixture control knob
    ручка управления высотным корректором
    mixture control lever
    рычаг высотного корректора
    noise control
    контроль уровня шума
    noise control technique
    метод контроля шума
    nonreversible control
    необратимое управление
    nozzle control system
    система управления реактивным соплом
    oceanic area control center
    океанический районный диспетчерский центр
    oceanic control area
    океанический диспетчерский район
    oil control ring
    маслосборное кольцо
    operating controls
    органы управления
    operational control
    диспетчерское управление полетами
    overspeed limiting control
    узел ограничения заброса оборотов
    passport control
    паспортный контроль
    pedal control
    ножное управление
    pilot on the controls
    пилот, управляющий воздушным судном
    pitch control
    продольное управление
    pitch control lever
    ручка шага
    pitch control system
    система управления тангажом
    pitch trim control knob
    кремальера тангажа
    positive control zone
    зона полного диспетчерского контроля
    power augmentation control
    управление форсажем
    power-boost control
    обратимое управление с помощью гидроусилителей
    power-boost control system
    бустерная обратимая система управления
    powered control
    управление с помощью гидроусилителей
    power-operated control
    необратимое управление с помощью гидроусилителей
    power-operated control system
    необратимая система управления
    pressure control system
    система регулирования давления
    pressure control unit
    автомат давления
    propeller control unit
    регулятор числа оборотов воздушного винта
    propeller pitch control
    управление шагом воздушного винта
    propeller pitch control system
    л управления шагом воздушного винта
    pull the control column back
    брать штурвал на себя
    pull the control stick back
    брать ручку управления на себя
    push-button control
    кнопочное управление
    push-pull control system
    жесткая система управления
    (при помощи тяг) push the control column
    отдавать штурвал от себя
    push the control stick
    отдавать ручку управления от себя
    quality control expert
    эксперт по контролю за качеством
    radar approach control
    центр радиолокационного управления заходом на посадку
    radar control
    радиолокационный контроль
    radar control area
    зона действия радиолокатора
    radar transfer of control
    передача радиолокационного диспетчерского управления
    radio control board
    пульт управления по радио
    radio remote control
    радиодистанционное управление
    regional control center
    региональный диспетчерский центр
    release of control
    передача управления
    relinquish control
    передавать управление
    remote control
    дистанционное управление
    remote control equipment
    оборудование дистанционного управления
    remote control system
    система дистанционного управления
    respond to controls
    реагировать на отклонение рулей
    reverser lock control valve
    клапан управления замком реверса
    reversible control
    обратимое управление
    reversible control system
    обратимая система управления
    rigid control
    жесткое управление
    roll control
    управление по крену
    roll control force sensor
    датчик усилий по крену
    roll control knob
    ручка управления креном
    rudder control
    управление рулем направления
    rudder control system
    система управления рулем направления
    rudder trim tab control system
    система управления триммером руля направления
    runway controlled
    диспетчер старта
    runway control van
    передвижной диспетчерский пункт в районе ВПП
    safety control measures
    меры по обеспечению безопасности
    speed control area
    зона выдерживания скорости
    speed control system
    система управления скоростью
    (полета) spring tab control rod
    тяга управление пружинным сервокомпенсатором
    stabilizer control jack
    механизм перестановки стабилизатора
    stack controlled
    диспетчер подхода
    starting fuel control unit
    автомат подачи пускового топлива
    steering-damping control valve
    распределительно демпфирующий механизм
    stiff control
    тугое управление
    surface movement control
    управление наземным движением
    surge control
    противопомпажный механизм
    tab control system
    система управления триммером
    tab control wheel
    штурвальчик управления триммером
    tail rotor control pedal
    педаль управления рулевым винтом
    take over the control
    брать управление на себя
    temperature control
    терморегулятор
    temperature control amplifier
    усилитель терморегулятора
    temporary loss of control
    временная потеря управляемости
    terminal control area
    узловой диспетчерский район
    terminal radar control
    конечный пункт радиолокационного контроля
    terminate the control
    прекращать диспетчерское обслуживание
    termination of control
    прекращение диспетчерского обслуживания
    throttle control
    управление газом
    throttle control knob
    сектор управления газом
    throttle control twist grip
    ручка коррекции газа
    tie bus control
    управление переключением шин
    track controlled
    диспетчер обзорного радиолокатора
    traffic control
    управление воздушным движением
    traffic control instructions
    правила управления воздушным движением
    traffic control personnel
    персонал диспетчерской службы воздушного движения
    traffic control regulations
    правила управления воздушным движением
    transfer of control
    передача диспетчерского управления
    transfer the control
    передавать диспетчерское управление другому пункту
    trim tab control
    управление триммером
    turn control knob
    ручка управления разворотом
    unassisted control
    управление без применения гидроусилителей
    unassisted control system
    безбустерная система управления
    upper area control center
    диспетчерский центр управления верхним районом
    upper control area
    верхний диспетчерский район
    upper level control area
    верхний район управления эшелонированием
    warning system control unit
    блок управления аварийной сигнализации
    weight and balance controlled
    диспетчер по загрузке и центровке
    wind flaps control system
    система управления закрылками
    windshield heat control unit
    автомат обогрева стекол
    wing flap control system
    система управления закрылками
    yaw control
    управление по углу рыскания

    English-Russian aviation dictionary > control

  • 15 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 16 of

    acknowledgement of receipt
    подтверждение приема
    actual time of arrival
    фактическое время прибытия
    aerodrome of call
    аэродром выхода на радиосвязь
    aerodrome of departure
    аэродром вылета
    aerodrome of intended landing
    аэродром предполагаемой посадки
    aerodrome of origin
    аэродром приписки
    aircraft center - of - gravity
    центровка воздушного судна
    airport of departure
    аэропорт вылета
    airport of destination
    аэропорт назначения
    airport of entry
    аэропорт прилета
    allocation of duties
    распределение обязанностей
    allocation of frequencies
    распределение частот
    allotment of frequencies
    выделение частот
    alternative means of communication
    резервные средства связи
    amount of controls
    степень использования
    amount of feedback
    степень обратной связи
    amount of precipitation
    количество осадков
    angle of allowance
    угол упреждения
    angle of approach
    угол захода на посадку
    angle of approach light
    угол набора высоты
    angle of ascent
    угол набора высоты
    angle of attack
    угол атаки
    angle of climb
    угол набора высоты
    angle of coverage
    угол действия
    angle of crab
    угол сноса
    angle of descent
    угол снижения
    angle of deviation
    угол отклонения
    angle of dip
    угол магнитного склонения
    angle of dive
    угол пикирования
    angle of downwash
    угол скоса потока вниз
    angle of elevation
    угол места
    angle of exit
    угол схода
    angle of glide
    угол планирования
    angle of incidence
    угол атаки
    angle of indraft
    угол входа воздушной массы
    angle of lag
    угол отставания
    angle of landing
    посадочный угол
    angle of pitch
    угол тангажа
    angle of roll
    угол крена
    angle - of - sideslip transmitter
    датчик угла скольжения
    angle of sight
    угол прицеливания
    angle of slope
    угол наклона глиссады
    angle of stall
    угол сваливания
    angle of turn
    угол разворота
    angle of upwash
    угол скоса потока вверх
    angle of visibility
    угол обзора
    angle of yaw
    угол рыскания
    antimeridian of Greenwich
    меридиан, противоположный Гринвичскому
    apparent drift of the gyro
    кажущийся уход гироскопа
    application of tariffs
    применение тарифов
    approach rate of descent
    скорость снижения при заходе на посадку
    arc of a path
    дуга траектории
    arc of equal bearings
    дуга равных азимутов
    area of coverage
    зона действия
    area of coverage of the forecasts
    район обеспечения прогнозами
    area of occurence
    район происшествия
    area of responsibility
    зона ответственности
    arrest the development of the stall
    препятствовать сваливанию
    assessment of costs
    установление размеров расходов
    assignment of duties
    распределение обязанностей
    Association of European Airlines
    Ассоциация европейских авиакомпаний
    Association of South Pacific Airlines
    Ассоциация авиакомпаний южной части Тихого океана
    assumption of control message
    прием экипажем диспетчерского указания
    at a speed of
    на скорости
    at the end of
    в конце цикла
    at the end of segment
    в конце участка
    (полета) at the end of stroke
    в конце хода
    (поршня) at the start of cycle
    в начале цикла
    at the start of segment
    в начале участка
    (полета) aviation-to-aviation type of interference
    помехи от авиационных объектов
    avoidance of collisions
    предотвращение столкновений
    avoidance of hazardous conditions
    предупреждение опасных условий полета
    axial of bank
    продольная ось
    axis of precession
    ось прецессии гироскопа
    axis of roll
    продольная ось
    axis of rotation
    ось вращения
    axis of yaw
    вертикальная ось
    backward movement of the stick
    взятие ручки на себя
    be out of trim
    быть разбалансированным
    best rate of climb
    наибольшая скороподъемность
    bias out of view
    выходить из поля зрения
    bill of entry
    таможенная декларация
    bill of lading
    грузовая накладная
    blanketing of controls
    затенение рулей
    body of compass card
    диск картушки компаса
    boundary of the area
    граница зоны
    Bureau of Administration and Services
    Административно-хозяйственное управление
    camber of a profile
    кривизна профиля
    care of passengers
    обслуживание пассажиров
    carriage of passengers
    перевозка пассажиров
    carry out a circuit of the aerodrome
    выполнять круг полета над аэродромом
    cause of aircraft trouble
    причина неисправности воздушного судна
    center of air pressure
    центр аэродинамического давления
    center of depression
    центр низкого давления
    center of force
    центр приложения силы
    center of gravity
    центр тяжести
    center of mass
    центр масс
    center of pressure
    центр давления
    Central Agency of Air Service
    Главное агентство воздушных сообщений
    certificate of revaccination
    сертификат ревакцинации
    certificate of safety for flight
    свидетельство о допуске к полетам
    certificate of vaccination
    сертификат вакцинации
    choice of field
    выбор посадочной площадки
    class of lift
    класс посадки
    clearance of goods
    таможенное разрешение на провоз
    clearance of obstacles
    безопасная высота пролета препятствий
    clearance of the aircraft
    разрешение воздушному судну
    coefficient of heat transfer
    коэффициент теплопередачи
    come clear of the ground
    отрываться от земли
    complex type of aircraft
    комбинированный тип воздушного судна
    composition of a crew
    состав экипажа
    concept of separation
    эшелонирование
    conditions of carriage
    условия перевозок
    cone of rays
    пучок лучей
    congestion of information
    насыщенность информации
    continuity of guidance
    непрерывность наведения
    contour of perceived noise
    контур воспринимаемого шума
    control of an investigation
    контроль за ходом расследования
    correlation of levels
    приведение эшелонов в соответствие
    country of arrival
    страна прилета
    country of origin
    страна вылета
    course of training
    курс подготовки
    coverage of the chart
    картографируемый район
    curve of equal bearings
    линия равных азимутов
    danger of collisions
    опасность столкновения
    degree of accuracy
    степень точности
    degree of freedom
    степень свободы
    degree of skill
    уровень квалификации
    degree of stability
    степень устойчивости
    denial of carriage
    отказ в перевозке
    Department of Transportation
    Министерство транспорта
    derivation of operating data
    расчет эксплуатационных параметров
    determination of cause
    установление причины
    determine amount of the error
    определять величину девиации
    determine the extent of damage
    определять степень повреждения
    determine the sign of deviation
    определять знак девиации
    development of the stall
    процесс сваливания
    direction of approach
    направление захода на посадку
    direction of rotation
    направление вращения
    direction of turn
    направление разворота
    duration of noise effect
    продолжительность воздействия шума
    elevation of the strip
    превышение летной полосы
    elevation setting of light units
    установка углов возвышения глиссадных огней
    eliminate the cause of
    устранять причину
    eliminate the source of danger
    устранять источник опасности
    (для воздушного движения) end of runway
    начало ВПП
    enforce rules of the air
    обеспечивать соблюдение правил полетов
    en-route change of level
    изменение эшелона на маршруте
    erection of the gyro
    восстановление гироскопа
    estimated position of aircraft
    расчетное положение воздушного судна
    estimated time of arrival
    расчетное время прибытия
    estimated time of departure
    расчетное время вылета
    estimated time of flight
    расчетное время полета
    even use of fuel
    равномерная выработка топлива
    extension of ticket validity
    продление срока годности билета
    extent of damage
    степень повреждения
    facilitate rapid clearance of
    обеспечивать быстрое освобождение
    factor of safety
    уровень безопасности
    filing of statistical data
    представление статистических данных
    first freedom of the air
    первая степень свободы воздуха
    first type of occurence
    первый тип события
    flow of air traffic
    поток воздушного движения
    fly under the supervision of
    летать под контролем
    for reasons of safety
    в целях безопасности
    freedom of action
    свобода действий
    freedom of the air
    степень свободы воздуха
    frequency of operations
    частота полетов
    gathering of information
    сбор информации
    general conditions of carriage
    основные условия перевозки
    General Conference of Weights and Measure
    Генеральная конференция по мерам и весам
    General Department of International Air Services of Aeroflot
    Центральное управление международных воздушных сообщений гражданской авиации
    get out of control
    терять управление
    given conditions of flight
    заданные условия полета
    go out of control
    становиться неуправляемым
    go out of the spin
    выходить из штопора
    grade of service
    категория обслуживания
    grade of the pilot licence
    класс пилотского свидетельства
    grading of runway
    нивелирование ВПП
    height at start of retraction
    высота начала уборки
    hover at the height of
    зависать на высоте
    identification of signals
    опознавание сигналов
    inconventional type of aircraft
    нестандартный тип воздушного судна
    increase a camber of the profile
    увеличивать кривизну профиля
    indication of a request
    обозначение запроса
    in interests of safety
    в интересах безопасности
    initial rate of climb
    начальная скороподъемность
    initial stage of go-around
    начальный участок ухода на второй круг
    inlet angle of attack
    угол атаки заборного устройства
    intake angle of attack
    угол атаки воздухозаборника
    integrated system of airspace control
    комплексная система контроля воздушного пространства
    interception of civil aircraft
    перехват гражданского воздушного судна
    International Co-ordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Association
    Международный координационный совет ассоциаций авиакосмической промышленности
    International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations
    Международный совет ассоциаций владельцев воздушных судов и пилотов
    International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations
    Международная федерация ассоциаций линейных пилотов
    International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations
    Международная федерация ассоциаций авиадиспетчеров
    International Relations Department of the Ministry of Civil Aviation
    Управление внешних сношений Министерства гражданской авиации
    interpretation of the signal
    расшифровка сигнала
    interpretation of weather chart
    чтение метеорологической карты
    intersection of air routes
    пересечение воздушных трасс
    in the case of delay
    в случае задержки
    in the event of a mishap
    в случае происшествия
    in the event of malfunction
    в случая отказа
    introduction of the corrections
    ввод поправок
    keep clear of rotor blades
    остерегаться лопастей несущего винта
    keep clear of the aircraft
    держаться на безопасном расстоянии от воздушного судна
    keep out of the way
    не занимать трассу
    layout of aerodrome markings
    маркировка аэродрома
    layout of controls
    расположение органов управления
    lessee of an aircraft
    арендатор воздушного судна
    level of airworthiness
    уровень летной годности
    level of safety
    уровень безопасности
    level of speech interference
    уровень помех речевой связи
    limiting range of mass
    предел ограничения массы
    line of flight
    линия полета
    line of position
    линия положения
    line of sight
    линия визирования
    location of distress
    район бедствия
    loss of control
    потеря управления
    loss of pressurization
    разгерметизация
    loss of strength
    потеря прочности
    magnetic orientation of runway
    ориентировка ВПП по магнитному меридиану
    margin of error
    допуск на погрешность
    margin of lift
    запас подъемной силы
    margin of safety
    допустимый уровень безопасности
    margin of stability
    запас устойчивости
    marking of pavements
    маркировка покрытия
    mean scale of the chart
    средний масштаб карты
    means of communication
    средства связи
    means of identification
    средства опознавания
    meridian of Greenwich
    гринвичский меридиан
    method of steepest descent
    способ резкого снижения
    mode of flight
    режим полета
    moment of inertia
    момент инерции
    moment of momentum
    момент количества движения
    name-code of the route
    кодирование названия маршрута
    onset of wind
    резкий порыв ветра
    operation of aircraft
    эксплуатация воздушного судна
    out of ground effect
    вне зоны влияния земли
    out of service
    изъятый из эксплуатации
    overshoot capture of the glide slope
    поздний захват глиссадного луча
    period of rating currency
    период действия квалифицированной отметки
    personal property of passengers
    личные вещи пассажиров
    pilot's field of view
    поле зрения пилота
    plane of rotation
    плоскость вращения
    plane of symmetry of the aeroplane
    плоскость симметрии самолета
    point of arrival
    пункт прилета
    point of call
    пункт выхода на связь
    point of departure
    пункт вылета
    point of destination
    пункт назначения
    point of discontinuity
    точка разрыва
    point of intersection
    точка пересечения
    point of loading
    пункт погрузки
    point of no return
    рубеж возврата
    point of origin
    пункт вылета
    point of turn-around
    рубеж разворота
    point of unloading
    пункт выгрузки
    portion of a flight
    отрезок полета
    portion of a runway
    участок ВПП
    prevention of collisions
    предотвращение столкновений
    primary element of structure
    основной элемент конструкции
    prohibition of landing
    запрещение посадки
    prolongation of the rating
    продление срока действия квалификационной отметки
    promotion of safety
    обеспечение безопасности полетов
    proof of compliance
    доказательство соответствия
    propagation of sound
    распространение шума
    protection of evidence
    сохранение вещественных доказательств
    pull out of the spin
    выводить из штопора
    pull the aircraft out of
    брать штурвал на себя
    radar transfer of control
    передача радиолокационного диспетчерского управления
    radius of curvature
    радиус кривизны
    range of coverage
    радиус действия
    range of motion
    диапазон отклонения
    range of revolutions
    диапазон оборотов
    range of visibility
    дальность видимости
    range of vision
    дальность обзора
    rate of climb
    скороподъемность
    rate of closure
    скорость сближения
    rate of descent
    скорость снижения
    rate of disagreement
    скорость рассогласования
    rate of duty
    скорость таможенной пошлины
    rate of exchange
    курс обмена валюты
    rate of flaps motion
    скорость отклонения закрылков
    rate of growth
    темп роста
    rate of pitch
    скорость по тангажу
    rate of roll
    скорость крена
    rate of sideslip
    скорость бокового скольжения
    rate of trim
    скорость балансировки
    rate of turn
    скорость разворота
    rate of yaw
    скорость рыскания
    reception of telephony
    прием телефонных сообщений
    record of amendments
    лист учета поправок
    record of revisions
    внесение поправок
    regularity of operations
    регулярность полетов
    relay of messages
    передача сообщений
    release of control
    передача управления
    removal of aircraft
    удаление воздушного судна
    removal of limitations
    отмена ограничений
    replacement of parts
    замена деталей
    representative of a carrier
    представитель перевозчика
    reservation of a seat
    бронирование места
    retirement of aircraft
    списание воздушного судна
    right - of - entry
    преимущественное право входа
    roll out of the turn
    выходить из разворота
    rules of the air
    правила полетов
    safe handling of an aircraft
    безопасное управление воздушным судном
    second freedom of the air
    вторая степень свободы воздуха
    second type of occurence
    второй тип события
    selection of engine mode
    выбор режима работы двигателя
    sequence of fuel usage
    очередность выработки топлива
    (по группам баков) sequence of operation
    последовательность выполнения операций
    showers of rain and snow
    ливневый дождь со снегом
    simultaneous use of runways
    одновременная эксплуатация нескольких ВПП
    site of occurrence
    место происшествия
    slope of level
    наклон кривой уровня
    (шумов) source of danger
    источник опасности
    Standing Committee of Performance
    Постоянный комитет по летно-техническим характеристикам
    start of leveloff
    начало выравнивания
    start of takeoff
    начало разбега при взлете
    state of aircraft manufacture
    государство - изготовитель воздушного судна
    state of discharge
    степень разряженности
    (аккумулятора) state of emergency
    аварийное состояние
    state of occurence
    государство места события
    state of transit
    государство транзита
    steadiness of approach
    устойчивость при заходе на посадку
    steady rate of climb
    установившаяся скорость набора высоты
    structure of fronts
    структура атмосферных фронтов
    submission of a flight plan
    представление плана полета
    system of monitoring visual aids
    система контроля за работой визуальных средств
    (на аэродроме) system of units
    система единиц
    (измерения) table of cruising levels
    таблица крейсерских эшелонов
    table of intensity settings
    таблица регулировки интенсивности
    table of limits
    таблица ограничений
    table of tolerance
    таблица допусков
    take out of service
    снимать с эксплуатации
    target level of safety
    заданный уровень безопасности полетов
    temporary loss of control
    временная потеря управляемости
    termination of control
    прекращение диспетчерского обслуживания
    theory of flight
    теория полета
    time of lag
    время запаздывания
    time of origin
    время отправления
    titl of the gyro
    завал гироскопа
    top of climb
    конечный участок набора высоты
    transfer of control
    передача диспетчерского управления
    transmission of telephony
    передача радиотелефонных сообщений
    transmit on frequency of
    вести передачу на частоте
    triangle of velocities
    треугольник скоростей
    under any kind of engine failure
    при любом отказе двигателя
    uneven use of fuel
    неравномерная выработка топлива
    unit of measurement
    единица измерения
    velocity of sound
    скорость звука
    wall of overpressure
    фронт избыточного давления
    warn of danger
    предупреждать об опасности
    within the frame of
    в пределах
    working language of ICAO
    рабочий язык ИКАО
    zone of intersection
    зона пересечения
    zone of silence
    зона молчания

    English-Russian aviation dictionary > of

  • 17 cover

    I 1. ['kʌvə(r)]
    1) (protective lid, sheath) copertura f.; (for duvet, cushion) fodera f., rivestimento m.; (for table) copritavolo m.; (for umbrella, blade, knife) fodero m., guaina f.; (for typewriter, pan) coperchio m.
    2) (blanket) coperta f.
    3) (of book, magazine, record) copertina f.

    on the cover (of book) sulla copertina; (of magazine) in copertina

    4) (shelter) rifugio m., riparo m.

    under cover — al riparo, al coperto

    5) (for spy, operation, crime) copertura f. ( for per)

    to blow sb.'s cover — colloq. fare saltare la copertura di qcn

    6) mil. copertura f.

    to give sb. cover — coprire qcn

    7) (replacement) (for teacher, doctor) sostituto m. temporaneo
    8) BE copertura f. assicurativa
    9) (table setting) coperto m.
    10) mus. cover version
    2.
    modificatore [design, illustration] di copertina
    II 1. ['kʌvə(r)]
    1) (to conceal or protect) coprire [table, pan, legs, wound] ( with con); rivestire, ricoprire [cushion, sofa] ( with con); coprire, chiudere [ hole] ( with con)

    to cover one's mouth mettere la mano davanti alla bocca; to cover one's ears — tapparsi le orecchie

    2) (coat) [dust, snow, layer] coprire, ricoprire [ground, cake]

    everything got covered with o in sand tutto fu coperto dalla sabbia; to be covered in glory — essere carico di gloria

    3) (be strewn over) [litter, graffiti, blossom, bruises] coprire

    to cover sb.'s face with kisses — riempire di baci il viso di qcn

    4) (travel over) coprire, percorrere [distance, area]; (extend over) estendersi per, occupare [ area]
    5) (deal with, include) [article, speaker] trattare [ subject]; [ term] comprendere, includere [meaning, aspect]; [ teacher] affrontare, spiegare [ chapter]; [rule, law] applicarsi a [situation, person]; [ department] essere competente per [area, activity]; [ rep] essere responsabile per [ area]
    6) (report on) [ journalist] seguire [event, subject]
    7) (pay for) [salary, company, person] coprire [ costs]; colmare [ loss]

    Ј 20 should cover itcolloq. 20 sterline dovrebbero bastare

    8) coprire, assicurare [person, possession] ( for, against contro; for doing per fare); [ guarantee] coprire [costs, parts]
    9) mil. sport (protect) coprire, proteggere [person, advance, area of pitch]

    I've got you covered! (threat) ti tengo sotto tiro!

    to cover one's backfig. coprirsi

    10) (conceal) nascondere [emotion, ignorance]; coprire [ noise]
    2.

    to cover oneself — coprirsi, proteggersi

    to cover oneself with — coprirsi di [glory, shame]

    * * *
    1. verb
    1) (to put or spread something on, over or in front of: They covered (up) the body with a sheet; My shoes are covered in paint.) coprire
    2) (to be enough to pay for: Will 10 dollars cover your expenses?) coprire
    3) (to travel: We covered forty miles in one day.) percorrere
    4) (to stretch over a length of time etc: His diary covered three years.) coprire
    5) (to protect: Are we covered by your car insurance?) coprire
    6) (to report on: I'm covering the race for the local newspaper.) occuparsi di
    7) (to point a gun at: I had him covered.) tenere nel mirino
    2. noun
    1) (something which covers, especially a cloth over a table, bed etc: a table-cover; a bed-cover; They replaced the cover on the manhole.) copertura, coperta
    2) (something that gives protection or shelter: The soldiers took cover from the enemy gunfire; insurance cover.) riparo, copertura
    3) (something that hides: He escaped under cover of darkness.) protezione
    - covering
    - cover-girl
    - cover story
    - cover-up
    * * *
    I 1. ['kʌvə(r)]
    1) (protective lid, sheath) copertura f.; (for duvet, cushion) fodera f., rivestimento m.; (for table) copritavolo m.; (for umbrella, blade, knife) fodero m., guaina f.; (for typewriter, pan) coperchio m.
    2) (blanket) coperta f.
    3) (of book, magazine, record) copertina f.

    on the cover (of book) sulla copertina; (of magazine) in copertina

    4) (shelter) rifugio m., riparo m.

    under cover — al riparo, al coperto

    5) (for spy, operation, crime) copertura f. ( for per)

    to blow sb.'s cover — colloq. fare saltare la copertura di qcn

    6) mil. copertura f.

    to give sb. cover — coprire qcn

    7) (replacement) (for teacher, doctor) sostituto m. temporaneo
    8) BE copertura f. assicurativa
    9) (table setting) coperto m.
    10) mus. cover version
    2.
    modificatore [design, illustration] di copertina
    II 1. ['kʌvə(r)]
    1) (to conceal or protect) coprire [table, pan, legs, wound] ( with con); rivestire, ricoprire [cushion, sofa] ( with con); coprire, chiudere [ hole] ( with con)

    to cover one's mouth mettere la mano davanti alla bocca; to cover one's ears — tapparsi le orecchie

    2) (coat) [dust, snow, layer] coprire, ricoprire [ground, cake]

    everything got covered with o in sand tutto fu coperto dalla sabbia; to be covered in glory — essere carico di gloria

    3) (be strewn over) [litter, graffiti, blossom, bruises] coprire

    to cover sb.'s face with kisses — riempire di baci il viso di qcn

    4) (travel over) coprire, percorrere [distance, area]; (extend over) estendersi per, occupare [ area]
    5) (deal with, include) [article, speaker] trattare [ subject]; [ term] comprendere, includere [meaning, aspect]; [ teacher] affrontare, spiegare [ chapter]; [rule, law] applicarsi a [situation, person]; [ department] essere competente per [area, activity]; [ rep] essere responsabile per [ area]
    6) (report on) [ journalist] seguire [event, subject]
    7) (pay for) [salary, company, person] coprire [ costs]; colmare [ loss]

    Ј 20 should cover itcolloq. 20 sterline dovrebbero bastare

    8) coprire, assicurare [person, possession] ( for, against contro; for doing per fare); [ guarantee] coprire [costs, parts]
    9) mil. sport (protect) coprire, proteggere [person, advance, area of pitch]

    I've got you covered! (threat) ti tengo sotto tiro!

    to cover one's backfig. coprirsi

    10) (conceal) nascondere [emotion, ignorance]; coprire [ noise]
    2.

    to cover oneself — coprirsi, proteggersi

    to cover oneself with — coprirsi di [glory, shame]

    English-Italian dictionary > cover

  • 18 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

  • 19 blackout

    1. полное погашение энергосистемы (района)
    2. полное отключение
    3. нарушение радиосвязи
    4. исчезновение напряжения
    5. длительный перерыв или нарушение энергоснабжения
    6. выключение света
    7. авария всей системы
    8. аварийный перерыв в энергоснабжении
    9. аварийное нарушение энергоснабжения

     

    аварийное нарушение энергоснабжения
    Потеря электроэнергии, затрагивающая многих потребителей электроэнергии в обширной географической зоне в течение значительного периода времени (Термины Рабочей Группы правового регулирования ЭРРА).
    [Англо-русский глосcарий энергетических терминов ERRA]

    EN

    blackout
    A power loss affecting many electricity consumers over a large geographical area for a significant period of time (ERRA Legal Regulation Working Group Terms).
    [Англо-русский глосcарий энергетических терминов ERRA]

    Тематики

    EN

     

    аварийный перерыв в энергоснабжении

    [Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва]

    Тематики

    • электротехника, основные понятия

    EN

     

    выключение света

    [Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]

    Тематики

    • электротехника, основные понятия

    EN

     

    длительный перерыв или нарушение энергоснабжения
    Основными причинами в ряде стран являются устаревшее оборудование, недостаток энергетических мощностей и топлива, неадекватная инфраструктура транспорта топлива.
    [А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

    Тематики

    EN

     

    исчезновение напряжения
    Снижение напряжения в любой точке системы электроснабжения до нуля.
    [ ГОСТ 23875-88]

    исчезновение напряжения
    Состояние нулевого напряжения в сети, продолжающееся более двух периодов сетевого напряжения. Качественные импульсные блоки питания могут выдержать 20-40 мс (один - два периода) отсутствия сетевого напряжения

    EN

    loss of voltage
    a condition in which the voltage is zero or near zero, at the supply point or points
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    blackout
    cutoff of electrical power, especially as a result of a shortage, a mechanical failure, or overuse by consumers
    NOTE A power cut due to a short or long-term electric power loss in an area.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    FR

    manque de tension
    situation dans laquelle la valeur de la tension en un point de fourniture est nulle ou quasi nulle
    [IEV number 604-01-23]

    coupure
    arrêt de l’alimentation électrique, due en particulier à une pénurie, une défaillance mécanique ou une surconsommation de la part des utilisateurs
    NOTE Coupure de courant entraînant la suppression de l’alimentation électrique dans une zone pour une courte durée ou une longue durée.
    [IEC 61000-2-5, ed. 2.0 (2011-05)]

    451.1 В случаях, если понижение или исчезновение напряжения с последующим его восстановлением может создать опасность для людей или имущества, должны быть приняты необходимые меры предосторожности.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 6-94 ( МЭК 364-4-45-84)]

    465.3.1 Цепи управления электродвигателями должны быть спроектированы таким образом, чтобы не было возможности самозапуска двигателя после его остановки вследствие понижения или исчезновения напряжения, если самозапуск является опасным.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50571. 7-94 ( МЭК 364-4-46-81)]

    Недопустимые, нерекомендуемые

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Смотри также

     

    нарушение радиосвязи
    Возникновение сбоев в работе радиостанции из-за ухудшения условий распространения радиоволн.
    [Л.М. Невдяев. Телекоммуникационные технологии. Англо-русский толковый словарь-справочник. Под редакцией Ю.М. Горностаева. Москва, 2002]

    Тематики

    • электросвязь, основные понятия

    EN

     

    полное отключение
    Разъединение контактов на всех полюсах питания, кроме заземления, обеспечивающее эквивалент основной изоляции между питающей электрической сетью и частями, которые предназначены для отключения.
    Примечание - Сюда относятся требования к размерам и электрической прочности.
    Если число полюсов на управляющем устройстве равно числу питающих полюсов прибора, с которым оно соединено, полное отключение обеспечивается при отключении всех полюсов.
    [ГОСТ IЕС 60730-1-2011]

    полное отключение (электропитания)

    [Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]

    полное отключение питания

    [Л.М. Невдяев. Телекоммуникационные технологии. Англо-русский толковый словарь-справочник. Под редакцией Ю.М. Горностаева. Москва, 2002]

    полное отключение

    [А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

    Тематики

    Синонимы

    EN

     

    полное погашение энергосистемы (района)

    [В.А.Семенов. Англо-русский словарь по релейной защите]

    Тематики

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > blackout

  • 20 cover

    A n
    1 (protective lid, sheath) couverture f ; (for duvet, cushion, birdcage) housse f ; (for table, furniture) protection f ; (for umbrella, blade, knife) fourreau m ; (for typewriter, record player, pan, bowl) couvercle m ;
    2 ( blanket) couverture f ;
    3 (of book, magazine) couverture f ; ( of record) pochette f ; on the cover ( of book) sur la couverture ; ( of magazine) en couverture ; she's made the cover of ‘Time’ elle a fait la couverture de ‘Time’ ; from cover to cover de la première à la dernière page ;
    4 ( shelter) abri m ; to provide cover servir d'abri (for à) ; to take cover se mettre à l'abri ; to run for cover courir se mettre à l'abri ; take cover! aux abris! ; to break cover quitter son abri ; under cover à l'abri ; under cover of darkness à la faveur de la nuit ; under cover of the confusion he escaped il a profité de la confusion pour s'évader ; open land with no cover terrain découvert sans abri possible ;
    5 (for spy, agent, operation, crime) couverture f (for pour) ; that's her cover c'est sa couverture ; to work under cover travailler sous une identité d'emprunt ; under cover of sth sous le couvert de qch ; under cover of doing sous prétexte de faire ; to blow sb's cover griller qn ;
    6 Mil couverture f ; air cover couverture aérienne ; to give sb cover couvrir qn ; I gave cover as he advanced je l'ai couvert tandis qu'il avançait ;
    7 ( replacement) (for teacher, doctor) remplacement m ; to provide emergency cover parer aux urgences ;
    8 GB Insur assurance f (for pour ; against contre) ; to give or provide cover against garantir contre ; she has cover for fire and theft elle est couverte contre l'incendie et le vol ;
    9 Fin ( collateral) provision f ;
    10 ( table setting) couvert m ;
    B modif [design, illustration, text] de couverture.
    C vtr
    1 ( to conceal or protect) couvrir [table, bed, pan, legs, wound] (with avec) ; recouvrir [cushion, sofa, corpse] (with de) ; boucher [hole] (with avec) ; we had the sofa covered on a fait recouvrir le canapé ; cover your mouth when you yawn mets la main devant la bouche quand tu bâilles ; cover one eye and read the chart cachez un œil et lisez le tableau ; to cover one's ears se boucher les oreilles ;
    2 ( coat) [person, dust, snow, water, layer] recouvrir [ground, surface, person, cake] (with de) ; the ground was covered with snow, snow covered the ground le sol était recouvert de neige, la neige recouvrait le sol ; everything got covered with ou in sand tout a été recouvert de sable ; the animal is covered in scales l'animal est couvert d'écailles ; to cover one's face with cream s'enduire le visage de crème ; to be covered in glory être couvert de gloire ;
    3 ( be strewn over) [litter, graffiti, blossom, bruises, scratches] couvrir ; the tree was covered with blossom, blossom covered the tree l'arbre était couvert de fleurs ; to cover sb's face with kisses couvrir le visage de qn de baisers ;
    4 ( travel over) parcourir [distance, area] ; ( extend over) s'étendre sur [distance, area] ; we covered a lot of miles on holiday nous avons fait beaucoup de kilomètres pendant les vacances ;
    5 (deal with, include) [article, book, speaker] traiter [subject, field] ; [word, term, item] englober [meaning, aspect] ; [teacher] faire [chapter] ; [rule, law] s'appliquer à [situation, person, organization] ; [department, office] s'occuper de [area, region, activity] ; [rep] couvrir [area] ; that price covers everything le prix comprend tout, tout est inclus dans le prix ; we will cover half the syllabus this term nous ferons or couvrirons la moitié du programme ce trimestre ;
    6 ( report on) [journalist, reporter, station] couvrir [event, angle, story, subject, match] ; the game will be covered live on BBC1 le match sera diffusé en direct par BBC1 ;
    7 ( pay for) [amount, salary, company, person] couvrir [costs, outgoings] ; combler [loss, deficit] ; £20 should cover it 20 livres sterling devraient suffire ; to cover one's costs rentrer dans ses frais ;
    8 Insur assurer, couvrir [person, possession] (for, against contre ; for doing pour faire) ; [guarantee] couvrir [costs, parts] ; are you adequately covered? est-ce que vous êtes suffisamment assuré? ;
    9 Mil, Sport ( protect) couvrir [person, advance, retreat, exit, area of pitch] ; I'll cover you je te couvre ; I've got you covered! ( threat) ne bougez pas ou je tire! ; keep him covered tenez-le en joue ; to cover one's back fig se couvrir ;
    10 ( conceal) cacher [emotion, ignorance] ; couvrir [noise] ; masquer [smell] ;
    11 Mus ( make version of) faire sa version de [song] ;
    12 Zool ( mate with) couvrir, saillir.
    D v refl to cover oneself se protéger (against contre ; by doing en faisant) ; to cover oneself with se couvrir de [glory, praise, shame].
    E - covered (dans composés) snow-/scrub-covered couvert de neige/de broussailles ; chocolate-covered enrobé de chocolat.
    F covered pp adj [porch, passage, courtyard] couvert ; [dish, pan] à couvercle.
    cover for:
    cover for [sb]
    1 ( replace) remplacer, faire un remplacement pour [colleague, employee] ;
    2 ( protect) couvrir [person] ; ‘I'm going to be late, cover for me!’ ‘je vais être en retard, trouve-moi une excuse!’
    cover over [sth], cover [sth] over couvrir [passage, yard, area, pool] (with avec) ; recouvrir [painting, mark, stain] (with de).
    cover up:
    1 ( put clothes on) se couvrir ;
    2 to cover oneself up se couvrir (with de) ;
    3 ( conceal truth) étouffer une affaire ; to cover up for couvrir [colleague, friend, mistakes] ; they're covering up for each other ils se couvrent l'un l'autre ;
    cover up [sth], cover [sth] up
    1 lit recouvrir [window, body, footprints] (with avec) ; cacher [answers] (with avec) ;
    2 fig dissimuler [mistake, loss, crime, affair, truth] ; cacher [emotion] ; étouffer [scandal].

    Big English-French dictionary > cover

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